St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador

Early History and European Settlement

The history of St. John's is connected to the early European exploration and use of North America's fishing grounds. While a legend attributes the city's name to John Cabot's arrival on the feast day of Saint John the Baptist in 1497, historical evidence points to a more gradual development. The earliest cartographic record of the location appears as São João on a Portuguese map by Pedro Reinel in 1519. Throughout the 16th century, the harbour served as a seasonal base for fishermen from Portugal, Spain, France, and England, who crossed the Atlantic annually to fish the waters off the Avalon Peninsula. In 1527, English mariner John Rut visited St. John's and found Norman, Breton and Portuguese ships in the harbour. He wrote the first known letter sent from North America to King Henry VIII on 3 August of that year. Sir Humphrey Gilbert formally claimed the area for England in 1583 under a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I, though no permanent settlement was established then and Gilbert was lost at sea on his return voyage. Bernard Drake's Newfoundland Expedition in 1585 used St. John's as a base, effectively ending Spanish and Portuguese fishing dominance in the region.

A permanent community was not firmly established until after the 1630s, as English West Country fishermen were initially forbidden from settling to protect migratory fishing interests. By 1620, these West Country fishermen controlled most of Newfoundland's east coast, and William Payne called St. John's the principal lot in the country in 1627. The population grew slowly in the 17th century, with St. John's being the largest settlement when censuses began around 1675. The 17th and 18th centuries were marked by conflict as European powers fought for control of the strategic harbour. The town's first significant defences were erected after a temporary seizure by Dutch admiral Michiel de Ruyter in June 1665. In 1673, merchant captain Christopher Martin successfully defended the town from three Dutch warships using cannons landed from his ship, the Elias Andrews. A series of attacks and battles shaped its early fortifications.

• In 1696, French forces under Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville captured and destroyed the settlement during the Avalon Peninsula Campaign.
• The French attacked again in the Siege of St. John's in 1705.
• French forces captured the town again in the Battle of St. John's in 1708, devastating civilian structures with fire.
• The final battle of the Seven Years' War in North America was fought there in 1762, ending with the British victory at the Battle of Signal Hill under Colonel William Amherst.

Following the 1762 battle, fortifications like Fort Amherst and Fort Waldegrave were built in the late 1700s to defend the harbour entrance. The harbour remained fortified through most of the 18th and 19th centuries. The 18th century saw major changes in Newfoundland, including population growth and the beginnings of government. St. John's grew slowly, serving as a fishing station, a garrison, a centre of government, and a commercial hub. It also served as a naval base during the American Revolutionary War and the War of 1812.

Modern Development and Key Events

The 19th and 20th centuries transformed St. John's from a fortified fishing station into a modern city and provincial capital. The city served as a naval base during both the American Revolutionary War and the War of 1812. It was officially incorporated as a city in 1888. A mutiny known as the United Irish Uprising occurred on 24 April 1800 when 19 Irish soldiers in the British garrison mutinied, leading to the execution of 8 of the 17 captured men. St. John's played a role in the history of global communications when Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi received the first transatlantic wireless signal at a station in the city on 12 December 1901 from Poldhu, Cornwall. In June 1919, the city was the starting point for the first non-stop transatlantic aircraft flight, undertaken by Alcock and Brown in a modified Vickers Vimy IV bomber from Lester's Field, a flight duplicated in July 2005 by Steve Fossett in a replica aircraft. During the Second World War, the harbour supported Royal Navy and Royal Canadian Navy ships engaged in anti-submarine warfare and hosted the American Army Air Force base Fort Pepperrell, established under the Destroyers for Bases Agreement. The base included US-manned coast defence guns and a Canadian-manned battery of two 10-inch guns at Fort Cape Spear, and was transferred to Canadian control in 1960, becoming CFS St. John's. A tragic fire at the Knights of Columbus Hostel in December 1942 claimed 99 military and civilian lives.

The latter half of the 20th century brought economic challenges and renewal. The collapse of the northern cod fishery in the 1990s severely impacted the city and province, leading to high unemployment and depopulation. This development spurred significant population growth and commercial development, with the St. John's metropolitan area now accounting for about half of the provincial economic output. The city has also been marked by natural disasters, particularly a series of devastating fires that repeatedly destroyed large portions of the urban core throughout the 19th century.

• A fire on 12 February 1816 broke out on King's Beach and destroyed 120 houses, leaving about a thousand people homeless.
• Two citywide fires occurred in 1817, known jointly as the Great Fire of 1817.
• Another fire in 1819 destroyed 120 houses.
• A major fire in 1846 started in a cabinetmaker's shop on George Street when a glue pot boiled over. It spread aided by stored seal oil and an attempt to blow up a house which scattered embers.
• The Great Fire of 1892, beginning on the afternoon of 8 July on Carter's Hill, devoured most of the city's east end and commercial area due to catastrophic coincidences.

St. John's was destroyed by major fires in 1816, 1817, 1819, 1846 and 1892. The most famous was the Great Fire of 1892. The final major conflagration of the nineteenth century began on the afternoon of 8 July 1892 atop Carter's Hill on Freshwater Road. Initially, the fire did not cause any widespread panic, but a series of catastrophic coincidences caused the fire to spread. It devoured virtually all of the east end of the city, including much of its major commercial area, before being extinguished.

Geography and Climate

St. John's occupies a coastal location on the northeast of the Avalon Peninsula in southeast Newfoundland. The city spans 446.04 square kilometres, though much of this area remains wooded and undeveloped, with a total area larger than Montreal. Its downtown core lies to the west and north of the deep, sheltered St. John's Harbour, with the city expanding outward over steep, hilly terrain. The native vegetation is dominated by coniferous trees like black spruce, white spruce, and balsam fir, with white birch being the largest deciduous species. Other native species of lesser stature include alder, cherry and mountain ash. Numerous introduced tree species are common, with sycamore maple being most abundant and Norway maple also common. Other non-native species grown include blue spruce, common horsechestnut, European beech and littleleaf linden.

St. John's has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb), moderated by the Gulf Stream, which results in smaller seasonal temperature variations than expected for its latitude, with mean temperatures ranging from -4.7 °C in February to 16.5 °C in August. The city holds several notable Canadian climate distinctions. It is the foggiest major city, averaging 124 foggy days per year, and the windiest, with an average speed of 24.3 kilometres per hour. Precipitation is heavy and frequent year-round, averaging 1,538.9 millimetres annually, making it one of the wettest Canadian cities outside coastal British Columbia. The city experiences a winter precipitation maximum, with December being the wettest month at 173.9 mm on average, while June is the driest at 88.2 mm. Snowfall averages about 242.8 centimetres per winter season, but winter storms often bring changing precipitation types including rain, freezing rain, sleet and snow from a single system. The city is prone to severe winter storms and is one of the areas in Canada most prone to tropical cyclone activity due to its Atlantic exposure.

• The highest temperature ever recorded was 33.9 °C on 14 August 1876.
• The coldest temperature ever recorded was -29.4 °C on 16 February 1875.
• The snowstorm of 17 January 2020 brought an estimated 76 cm of snow in one day, a record that prompted a state of emergency and required Canadian Army assistance for snow removal.
• Major freezing rain events, called silver thaws, paralysed the city in April 1984 and April 2017.

Snowfall in St. John's is heavy, averaging approximately 242.8 centimetres per winter season. Snow cover in St. John's is variable and can extend well into the spring months of March and April. Of major Canadian cities, St. John's is the foggiest and windiest. Precipitation is frequent and often heavy, falling year-round. On average, summer is the driest season, with only occasional thunderstorm activity. June is the driest month, averaging 88.2 mm of precipitation.

Distinctive Architecture and Urban Character

The architecture of downtown St. John's is a defining feature, characterized by its colourful wooden row houses built on steep, winding streets. This streetscape, often nicknamed Jelly Bean Row, is a relatively modern development from the 1970s onward. Throughout much of the 19th and early 20th centuries, exterior house paints were dark shades of green, red, brown, and grey to better hide the coal soot that blanketed the city from widespread coal use. The introduction of bright paint colours began in the 1970s after coal heating was no longer commonly used. The city's built form was heavily shaped by the Great Fire of 1892, which destroyed most of the downtown core, meaning many residential and commercial wood-frame buildings date from the reconstruction period after that year. The city's earliest suburbs, particularly Georgestown, were not touched by the 1892 fire and retain their historic character as the first suburb.

City council has implemented strict heritage regulations in the downtown area, including restrictions on building height originally set at 15 metres (49 feet) in certain zones, which have been a source of ongoing controversy between heritage advocates and development proponents. With the city experiencing an economic boom and a consequent lack of hotel rooms and office space, proposals have been put forward that do not meet the current height regulations. In response to development pressures for more office space, the council created the Commercial Central Retail, West Zone along Water Street between Bishop's Cove and Steer's Cove, amending regulations to allow for higher buildings. The first major project approved under this new zone was a 47-metre, 12-storey office building with retail space and a parking garage. These regulations and developments continue to shape the evolving built environment of the city's core.

Population, Economy and Metropolitan Area

The St. John's Metropolitan Area, defined as a Census Metropolitan Area (CMA), is the population and economic centre of Newfoundland and Labrador. As of 16 January 2025, the CMA had an estimated population of approximately 239,316 residents. This figure represents a significant portion of the provincial population and confirms the city's role as the primary urban hub. Within the national context, the St. John's CMA ranks as the 22nd-largest metropolitan area in Canada. In Atlantic Canada, it is the second-largest CMA, trailing only Halifax, Nova Scotia in population size. The city's land area of 446.04 square kilometres is expansive, larger than that of Montreal, though a majority remains wooded. The economic output of the St. John's area is substantial, accounting for roughly half of the provincial economy.

This economic dominance represents a major shift from the traditional fishery-based economy that prevailed for centuries. The collapse of the northern cod fishery in the 1990s caused grave economic effects throughout the province, with St. John's experiencing high unemployment rates and depopulation. The city's economic recovery and subsequent boom were driven by its proximity to the Hibernia, Terra Nova and White Rose oil fields, leading to commercial development and population growth. Today, the city functions as the service and supply centre for the offshore oil industry, while also maintaining its roles as the provincial capital, a centre for government services, higher education through Memorial University, healthcare, and tourism. The city's historical commercial ties with North America, developed in the 18th century alongside the seal, salmon and Grand Banks fisheries, have thus evolved into a more diversified modern economy.

Cultural and Historical Significance

St. John's is a city of historical and cultural importance for Newfoundland and Labrador and for Canada. It contains 21 National Historic Sites of Canada as of 2012, reflecting its layered past from early European contact to military history. The city's history is physically present in its fortifications, such as the Signal Hill National Historic Site where the Battle of Signal Hill took place and where Marconi received his wireless signal. The city's Irish heritage is also notable, evidenced in historical events like the United Irish Uprising by soldiers in 1800 where mutineers suspected of being United Irishmen fled to the countryside, and in the Irish language poetry of Donnchadh Ruadh Mac Conmara (1715 to 1810), who referred to the city as Baile Sheáin (Johnstown). The legacy of the fishing industry, though diminished, remains a core part of local identity and history, with the city having developed as a centre for the seal, salmon and Grand Banks fisheries.

St. John's has been the setting for several pioneering technological achievements that have global significance. Beyond Marconi's work, the city was the departure point for landmark aviation feats that captured international attention. The city's museums, historic properties, and unique built environment have made it an important tourist destination. The combination of a deep historical identity with its modern role as an oil and gas service centre, a government seat, and an educational hub creates a dynamic cultural environment that continues to evolve while acknowledging its past. The city's historical milestones include several firsts in communication and transportation that are commemorated locally and recognized nationally.

• Guglielmo Marconi received the first transatlantic wireless signal there on 12 December 1901 from his station in Poldhu, Cornwall.
• Alcock and Brown began the first non-stop transatlantic flight from Lester's Field in St. John's in June 1919, ending in a bog near Clifden, Ireland.
• American aviator Steve Fossett duplicated this flight in a replica Vickers Vimy aircraft in July 2005, using St. John's International Airport.
• John Rut wrote the first known letter sent from North America from St. John's on 3 August 1527 to King Henry VIII.
• The city was depicted as St. Jehan on Nicolas Desliens's world map of 1541 and as San Joham in João Freire's Atlas of 1546.

St. John's is the easternmost city in North America, excluding Greenland. Indicated as São João on a Portuguese map from 1519, it is one of the oldest cities in North America. Guglielmo Marconi received the first transatlantic wireless signal in St. John's on 12 December 1901. St. John's was the starting point for the first non-stop transatlantic aircraft flight by Alcock and Brown in June 1919. Its history and culture have made it into an important tourist destination.

Questions about St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador

Why is St. John's called the oldest city in North America?

St. John's is often cited as one of the oldest cities in North America due to its very early use by European fishermen. The location appears on a Portuguese map from 1519 as São João. However, while it was used as a seasonal fishing base in the 1500s, a permanent settlement was not established until after the 1630s, when English fishermen were allowed to settle despite earlier prohibitions. This timeline means it is preceded as a permanent European settlement by others like St. Augustine, Florida (1565), and as a permanent English settlement by Jamestown, Virginia (1607) and the Cuper's Cove colony at Cupids, Newfoundland (1610). Its claim is based on continuous European activity and its early appearance in historical records.

What is St. John's best known for?

St. John's is known for several key historical and cultural attributes. It is famous as the site where Guglielmo Marconi received the first transatlantic wireless signal in 1901. It was also the starting point for the first non-stop transatlantic flight by Alcock and Brown in 1919. The city's colourful downtown row houses, known as Jelly Bean Row, are a well-known visual symbol. Historically, it played a strategic role in colonial wars, with the Battle of Signal Hill in 1762 being the final battle of the Seven Years' War in North America. Today, it is known as the economic hub of Newfoundland and Labrador's offshore oil industry and as North America's easternmost city.

What is the population of St. John's?

The population of the St. John's Census Metropolitan Area (CMA), which includes the city and surrounding communities, was approximately 239,316 as of 16 January 2025. This makes it the 22nd-largest metropolitan area in Canada and the second-largest in Atlantic Canada after Halifax, Nova Scotia. The city itself covers a large land area of 446.04 square kilometres, though much of this is undeveloped woodland. The metropolitan area accounts for a significant portion of the provincial population and about half of its economic output, reflecting its central role in the province.

What is the weather like in St. John's?

St. John's has a humid continental climate with strong maritime influences, leading to cool summers, mild winters relative to its latitude, and abundant precipitation. It is known as Canada's foggiest major city (124 days) and windiest (24.3 km/h average). The city receives an average of 1,538.9 millimetres of precipitation annually, with a wet winter season where December averages 173.9 mm. Snowfall averages about 242.8 centimetres per year, but winter storms often mix snow with rain, ice, and freezing rain. The record high temperature is 33.9 °C (14 August 1876), and the record low is -29.4 °C (16 February 1875). A historic snowstorm in January 2020 set a one-day snowfall record of 76 centimetres.

What caused the Great Fire of 1892 in St. John's?

The Great Fire of 1892 began on the afternoon of 8 July on Carter's Hill along Freshwater Road. Initially, the fire did not cause widespread panic, but a series of catastrophic coincidences allowed it to spread rapidly. It devoured virtually all of the city's east end, including much of its major commercial district, before being extinguished. This was the last in a series of major fires that repeatedly devastated St. John's throughout the 19th century, with other significant fires occurring in 1816 (destroying 120 houses), 1817 (two citywide fires), 1819 (120 houses), and 1846 (started by a glue pot). The 1892 fire fundamentally shaped the downtown architecture, as most wooden buildings date from the reconstruction period that followed.

What are the main economic drivers of St. John's today?

The economy of St. John's today is primarily driven by the offshore oil and gas industry. The city's proximity to the Hibernia, Terra Nova, and White Rose oil fields led to an economic boom starting in the late 1990s, which countered the downturn caused by the collapse of the northern cod fishery. The St. John's metropolitan area now accounts for approximately half of the provincial economic output. Other key sectors include government services, as the provincial capital, higher education through Memorial University, healthcare, and tourism based on its history and culture. The city serves as a commercial and service hub for the entire province, building on its historical role as a fishing and supply centre.

Sources and further reading

• St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador (Wikipedia)
• City of St. John's: Home (stjohns.ca)
• St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada (newfoundlandlabrador.com)

Checked by the Your Space Hamilton desk. Last updated 2026-10-18.